In the history of ancient and medieval Kazakhstan, there are very few cities and oasis centers whose cultural and religious traditions remain significant for the peoples of the modern republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. One such important, major political, trade, and economic center in the historical past was the city of Sygnak, geographically located in the Syr Darya region of Turkestan. The city was also a major religious center, playing a key role in the development of Islam in the region. According to historical writers, as early as the 13th century, Sygnak boasted not only magnificent palaces but also numerous active mosques of varying levels of religious worship, where ceremonial, festive, and daily prayer services were held. Sygnak played a significant role in the spiritual consolidation of society and the social, economic, and political development of the peoples of the region. Occupying a favorable geographical location in the 13th-15th centuries, the city rivaled Samarkand, Urgench, or Bukhara in importance and fame, and was widely known to the peoples of Europe and ancient Rus’, as evidenced, in particular, by the works of many travelers who traversed the steppes of Dasht-i-Kipchak. Studying the glorious past of this ancient city remains relevant today.

This article analyzes the Russian state’s policy of modernizing horse breeding in the Kalmyk Steppe from 1884 to 1886. The relevance of this topic stems from the need to study the mechanisms for integrating traditional farms on the outskirts of the empire into national economic and military structures. The study’s novelty lies in its detailed examination of local administrative practices and economic incentives (the institution of correspondents, exhibitions, and horse racing), which have not previously been the subject of specialized analysis. The methodological basis of the work is the principles of historicism and systematicity, as well as historical-genetic and statistical methods. The object of the study is the policy of the Main Directorate of State Stud Farming, and the subject is specific measures to improve the quality characteristics of the Kalmyk horse population. The conclusions are based on an analysis of records from the collections of the Russian State Historical Archive and the National Archives of the Republic of Kalmykia. It was established that public competitions (exhibitions and races in the Elista, Chilgir, and Utta tracts) became a key policy instrument, accompanied by material and moral incentives for horse breeders. The study showed that the introduction of evaluation criteria tailored to the needs of the cavalry and the distribution of breeding stallions stimulated the crossbreeding of Kalmyk horses with Don and stud breeds. However, limitations of the policy were identified, related to the involvement of only a small number of large farms, which led to tensions between the military department and the stud farm administration at the initial stage of integration.

This article examines the environmental aspects of land management decisions in the Kalmyk Steppe of Astrakhan Governorate in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The research source base consists of legal acts directly regulating land use in the Russian Empire as a whole and in the Kalmyk Steppe of Astrakhan Governorate, as well as records of local government bodies represented by ulus assemblies, found in the collections of the National Archives of the Republic of Kalmykia. The study focuses on identifying and analyzing the environmental aspects of land management decisions in the Kalmyk Steppe within the chronological framework under consideration. In conclusion, the author concludes that contemporary environmental challenges in land management in Kalmykia are the result of a long-term interaction between natural and anthropogenic factors, while external administrative decisions of the 19th and early 20th centuries, aimed at integrating the Kalmyk steppe into the imperial economic space, led to land degradation. Ignoring traditional resource management practices and shifting the burden to local populations reduced the effectiveness of environmental measures. Historical experience underscores the need to consider local environmental and cultural characteristics when developing modern land use strategies.

The Mongols have two populations: the Khalkha and the Oirats (eastern and western). The Oirats also have two subpopulations: the Kalmyks and the Kalmaks (Dzungars). The Kalmyks arrived in the northern Caspian region from western Mongolia in the first half of the 17th century. The Hazaras are descendants of the Kalmaks who arrived in Afghanistan in 1759, after the Qing Empire defeated the Dzungar Khanate. Population genetic data characterizing the Kalmyks, Hazaras, Mongols, and other populations are reviewed. They include Y-chromosome and mtDNA haplogroup frequencies, as well as autosomal markers. Associations of Y-chromosome haplogroups and their subclades are identified: Mongolian, European, Near Eastern, Southern, Steppe, and Siberian. The frequencies of haplogroups of the Mongolian association (C2, O and D) are 58.0, 9.6 and 0.8% among Kalmyks, 36.0, 4.4 and 0% among Hazaras, and 58.1, 16.7 and 0.8% among the Mongols of Mongolia (Khalkha and Oirats). Different subclades of haplogroup C2 predominate among Kalmyks and Kalmaks in terms of frequencies: C2a1a2a-M48 «Kalmyks» and C2a1a2b-M504 «Kalmaks». The Hazaras do not have carriers of the first subclade. Kalmyks have minimal frequencies of carriers of the second subclade. One of the Tibetan populations (haplogroups J2 and R2) participated in the ethnogenesis of Kalmyks. The Near Eastern contribution to their genetic portrait is minimal. The Hazara people are descended from Uyghurs (haplogroup J2) and Afghan populations. Populations from the Near East also made a significant contribution. MtDNA haplogroups and the results of specialized analysis of autosomal markers confirm the ethnic components of the populations, as determined by Y-chromosome haplogroups.

This article, for the first time, examines the axiological synchronization of cosmic cycles — specifically the movement of the Sun, the full cycle of lunar phases, and the Earth’s rotation on its axis — within the traditional culture of Belarusians and Kalmyks. The study employs a structural-axiological approach to demonstrate that within the “pyramid” of time, a distinct typology of evaluative determinants exists. It reveals that regardless of the scale of the cycle (annual, monthly, or daily), the temporal structure, marked by four key phases (origin, development, decline, completion), is consistently endowed with identical qualitative characteristics. The “pyramid” model serves to illustrate the initial, indivisible unity between the sacred Celestial Absolute and the sacralized time of the earthly world. Furthermore, the article demonstrates how this model extends beyond temporal organization to encompass spatial orientation, establishing a direct correlation between the four cardinal directions and the architectonics of the traditional Belarusian and Kalmyk dwelling. This integration ultimately reflects a unified worldview where cosmic rhythms, temporal values, and spatial order form a cohesive, harmonious system.

This article presents a comprehensive analysis of the axiological potential of Buddhist philosophy in the context of overcoming the global environmental crisis. The aim of the study is to identify the ontological and ethical foundations of Buddhism that could provide a ideological alternative to the currently dominant anthropocentric paradigm underlying the consumerist attitude toward nature. The methodological basis of the study is dialectical and comparative historical methods, allowing for a comparison of Western and Eastern approaches to understanding the natural world and the place of humans within it. The paper argues that the key doctrines of Buddhism — the doctrine of dependent origination (pratityasamutpada), the principle of non-violence (ahimsa), and the law of karmic retribution — form a holistic environmental ethic that rejects the rigid dualism of subject and object. Humans are viewed not as masters of nature, but as equal elements in a unified web of existence, where every action has irreversible cause-and-effect consequences. In particular, the principle of the Middle Way is interpreted as a sociocultural imperative of moderate consumption and abstinence from excess. It is concluded that Buddhism represents a viable ethical platform for the formation of a new civilizational model based on the principles of harmony, environmental awareness, and collective responsibility to future generations.