The article examines the diplomatic protocol used in the courtyard of Sohibkiran Amir Temur. It was during the reign of this legendary eastern ruler that the foundations of the diplomatic protocol were developed, which contributed to strengthening the respect and trust of foreign envoys to the Turanian state and its ruler, turning the country into one of the most powerful states in the East. This diplomatic ceremony is analyzed in the article on the example of the visit of the Ambassador of the King of Spain Rui Gonzalez de Clavijo to Samarkand in 1403-1406 and on the basis of his memoirs written during this mission and following it. Many norms and rules for organizing the visit of foreign envoys to Turania, which operated in the courtyard of Amir Temur, were indirectly included in the modern diplomatic protocol and today serve the extremely important cause of the development of political and business cooperation between countries, peoples, as well as international interacting organizations representing both social and political sphere, and business circles.

In this article, the subject of consideration is the ruins of the Ablai-Kit monastery in Dzungaria, discovered by an expedition led by the guard, Major Ivan Mikhailovich Likharev. Ablai Kit is of great interest to archaeologists who study it as a historical monument. The monastery contained a library that was significant for the periphery of the Tibeto-Buddhist world at that time. The various finds found in the monastery, especially manuscripts, are of particular value to the world scientific community. The text of one of the sheets of the manuscript became the subject of painstaking analysis by specialists and discussion among Tibetan scholars. The extant text of the leaf, as well as other manuscripts found in the ruins of the monastery, are a valuable source for historians studying the political and cultural history of the Oirat state and Buddhist monasteries on the territory of modern Kazakhstan.

The article is devoted to one of the little-known pages in Russian history, namely international relations of the Kalmyk Khanate in the 17th–18th centuries. The purpose of the article is to introduce into scientific circulation new archival information about the international policy of the Kalmyk Khanate during the reign of Khan Ayuki (1672–1724). The source base was the materials of the «Don Affairs» fund of the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, where the information of the Don Cossacks about attempts to establish Polish-Kalmyk relations in 1683–1686 was deposited. The repeated efforts of the Polish king Jan Sobieski to attract the Kalmyk army of Ayuki Khan in the wars of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against the Turks and Crimeans ultimately failed, in large part due to the priority of Russian-Kalmyk relations in the international affairs of the Kalmyk Khanate. Nevertheless, despite Moscow’s declared protests to Poland, as well as the admonitions of the Russian administration against the Kalmyk side, separate detachments of Kalmyks and Don Cossacks still took part on the side of Poland and its allies in the military battles of that time.

This article describes the history and traditions of Mongolian nomads transporting camels over long distances, the culture and methods of camel caravans that are unique to other countries and nations, the rituals, language, and unique features of camel caravans. Camel caravan, which has been one of the rhythms and meanings of the ancient life of Mongolians, has a rich history, customs and heritage for many years. Mongolians have a long tradition of riding camels, loading their backs, and riding in sleighs. Until recently, camels were widely used in Mongolia for the development of road transport and railways, as well as for the transportation of goods needed by the country and the people. Camels are still the main source of transportation for local herders. Mongolians have a long tradition of riding camels, loading their backs, and riding in sleighs as draught animal, and transportation. Until recently, camels were widely used in Mongolia for the weak development of road transport and railways. Camels widely used for the transportation of goods and goods needed by the country and the people, as well as for the movement of herders. Even today, camels are mainly used for daily transportation and transportation of local herder. History has shown that camels and camel caravan were the mainstays of the trade or Silk Road connecting Asia and Europe. The Mongol Empire during the reign of Genghis Khan played an important role in the development of this Silk Road, and in the 13^th century the so-called “Ministry of Camel of burden” was established in Mongolia. The Ministry of Camels was established because camels played a key role in carrying long distances, loading weapons in war, and transporting booty. During the Great Mongol Empire, the eastern branch of the Silk Road passed through Kharkhorum. The Silk Road connected Central Asia, Mongolia, China, and India with the Middle East and later Europe, and played an important role in establishing contacts, trade, and civilization among the committees of these countries. The length of the Silk Road was more than 7,000 km. and most of this road was traveled by camels. Since the advent of the Silk Road, Mongolian nomads have developed a sophisticated method of camel weighing that is unique to any other country or nation. In fact, for centuries, camels were the only means of transportation for trade and commerce within the country and with neighboring nations. Camels moved from any province of Mongolia to the capital, Uliastai, Khovd, Sanbees, Khiagt, Zaya Shavig, and Wang Khuree, as well as to Beijing, China, Chuulalt-Gate, Hohhot, Manchuria, Hailar, and Dolon Lake, Tsonj, Bar Khul, Urumch, Gunchen, Zhanchkhuu, Biysk, Khosh-Agach, and Troitskosavsk, Russia supplying with wool, hides, fur, flour, rice, tea, and daalimba (cotton).

The article is devoted to the study of Kalmyk measures of length. Folk terms, in contrast to universal official state measures forming a correlated system of metrological units, are characterized by a close connection with specific occupations of the population (cattle breeding, fishing, crafts, etc.). In the course of their historical development, the Kalmyks created and used a whole system of folk measures, which was widely used until the beginning of the XX century. Popular measures were widely used in the practical life of the Kalmyk people. They have their roots in ancient times, this is confirmed by their functioning in the epic “Dzhangar”, in folk tales, proverbs, riddles, sayings, For example, in the basis of the measures of length “utyn kemjan”, a distance equal to different parts of the human body was used. For example: töö ‘span’ is the length equal to the distance between the outstretched thumb and middle fingers of the usually right hand, toha ‘elbow’. For example: töö ‘span’ is the length equal to the distance between the outstretched thumb and middle fingers of the usually right hand, toha ‘elbow’. Thus, the folk names of the measures of lengths of the Kalmyks have common Mongol core, as well as some specific features.

At the present stage, the study of nomadic formations of the past arouses unflagging interest among Russian and foreign scientists. Their research reflects the history of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia. However, it is possible to single out a rather limited number of scientific works in their subject matter and chronological framework, in which the transformation of the traditional nomadic societies of the Caspian region is considered in the context of the socio-economic policy of the Soviet state in the 1920s-1930s. Scientific research on the transformation of traditional nomadic societies in the Caspian region is distinguished by a variety of topics and multidimensional problems. The scope of the study of the history and culture of nomads is wide (from the emergence of nomadic pastoralism, its flourishing, status in the Soviet years and up to the present state in the context of globalization). The relevance of the stated problems is due to the socio-political demand for a balanced approach to our common past in the context of the Eurasian integration process. The questions posed have not been sufficiently studied scientifically (for all the richness of historiography!). Within the framework of this article, the authors tried to analyze the previously expressed judgments on the indicated problems and, relying on an objective assessment of the current state of historiography, to formulate those principles that could form the theoretical and methodological basis for further research.

The translation has been done from the edition: Schorkowitz D. (2019). Was Russia a Colonial Empire? In: Schorkowitz D., Chávez J., Schröder I. (eds.) Shifting Forms of Continental Colonialism: Unfinished Struggles and Tensions. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9817-9_5.