This article is devoted to a preliminary discussion of the meaning of the religious (“sacred”, namely Buddhist) in the context of the content and manifestation of what is called the “civilization of nomads” (“civilization of nomadic societies”), while some attention is paid to historical circumstances. The analysis of the concept of “nomadic civilization” is presented, its signs are considered. In addition, the author makes an attempt to determine the place of nomadic empires in the civilizational history of Eurasia. In social science, which studies the life and way of life of nomads, definitions are still being formed and a general idea is being developed of what should be called a nomad civilization, what its different stages / variants / phases may be, whether there are fundamental differences in its manifestations and at what level, what is the ratio of civilization and cultures.

This study examines the history of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian steppe. The chronological framework is the second half of the 18th–the first half of the 19th century, which is less studied in modern Nomad studies, including in relation to the Kalmyks, Kazakhs and Nogais. In the history of the Russian state and the nomadic peoples inhabiting it, nomadism and the transition to a settled way of life have always played a significant role. In the XVIII century, the Russian government began to actively involve nomads in agricultural work. The traditional pastoral economy of the nomads was highly productive and was oriented, first of all, to their personal needs and the maintenance of their clan and family. Livestock has always played a huge role in the life of a nomad and was a measure of wealth and poverty, fixed capital and the most important food product, a method of transportation (horse-drawn transport), a means of exchange and the basis for making a home and clothing. The authors pay attention to the problem of land ownership and land use, which nomadic societies faced during this period, which resulted in practice in limiting and reducing nomadic lands, and this, of course, affected, in particular, the economic situation of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian steppe. The nomadic population of the Russian Empire still continued to lead a nomadic way of life and was mainly engaged in nomadic pastoralism. The process of nomadism, the selection and distribution of pasture lands, as well as other basic elements of the labor process were determined only by economic expediency. As a result, the nomadic mode of production within the Russian state retained in full measure all of its basic parameters of functioning and did not undergo any significant changes in the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

The article deals with the life of the Kalmyks who lived on the territory of the Don Cossacks in the 17th–early 20th centuries. The processes of isolation of the resettled Kalmyks on the Don land, gradual entry into the political and socio-economic space of the Don Cossacks are studied. A significant contribution of the Don Kalmyks to the socioeconomic development of the Cossack region, the protection of the Russian Empire from external encroachments is noted. The subject of the study is the system of measures taken by the leadership of the Don Cossacks in order to transition the Kalmyks from nomadism to settled life. The features of the transition of the Don Kalmyks to sedentary life as a result of the sedentarization policy pursued by the authorities, the main goal of which was to change the economy, life, social structure of the Kalmyk-Cossacks, their full inclusion in the general economic and cultural activities of the region, are traced. Particular attention is paid to the study of changes in the economy, spiritual life, mentality of the Don Kalmyks. The experience of management and cultural and spiritual interaction of the Don Kalmyks with the Cossacks, accumulated by the nomads during their three-century residence on the territory of the Don Cossacks, is considered. It is emphasized that this invaluable experience helped the Don Kalmyks to quickly adapt and painlessly engage in socioeconomic transformations in the Kalmyk Autonomous Region, where they were resettled in the 20s and 30s of the last century by a government decision. The conclusion is made about the positive impact of the Don Kalmyks who have settled down to settled life on the accelerated process of settling in the KAO. The research materials can be useful for students, graduate students, researchers, teachers of schools, educational institutions, all those who are interested in the history of the Don region, the Don Kalmyks.

Significant changes in definitions have taken place in the modern socio-political lexicon, for example, the concepts of national consciousness, national self-consciousness, national self-determination have been replaced by the categories of mentality, identification. The author of the article, using new philosophical and literary terms in his research, nevertheless considers it possible to use the system of natural ideas, and in particular the traditional interpretation of historical concepts and terms of literary criticism in the description of national thinking, which has been preserved and reflected in folk beliefs, Buddhist religion, oral folk art and fiction. This article discusses the issues of the originality of national consciousness in the picture of the world of the Kalmyks. First of all, interest was shown in folk-ethical ideas, although some philosophical foundations of being were also touched upon. A special place in the mentality of the Kalmyks is occupied by the concept of fate, which reflects the basic concepts of national existence, based on the Buddhist religion and folk culture. The concept of fate-zayan carries the features of the Kalmyk culture, which was largely determined by the centuries-old experience of nomadic cultural creation. For the purpose of researching and posing a scientific problem, the author of the article attracted works of fiction by Kalmyk writers devoted to a tragic topic for Kalmyks — deportation, in which folk-ethical, Buddhist ideas about fate — zayan, about the time of change — tsagin selgyan are represented. It is traced how the movement and circumstances of the time, not always favorable to the people, affect its mentality, in some cases introducing into the consciousness not the best examples of being.

This article uses the methodology of not only literary analysis, but also philosophical, cultural and linguoculturological. The article is considered by the author as a statement of a scientific problem for theoretical research of literary texts in the humanities, and for the interpretation of works in the curricula of educational institutions: school, college, higher educational institutions.

The epic «Jangar» is an important type of folklore that was invented in the 15th century among the nearby peoples and spread among the entire Mongols. Dao’s beautiful country is a place that is full of happiness for the four seasons. Jangar’s origin, his glory, his subjects, his heroes, and their horses are clearly mentioned. Each hero is capable of charm and character, and it is important for future generations to understand «Jangar». This epic is essential for the transmission of culture and tradition. «Bogd noyon Jangar Shar Gerel khaanyg dailsan buleg» occupies a special place.

The great writer V. Injannashi used the colour, light, and dream as symbols to express the harmonic roles in his novel «Khukh sudar». Its worldview and philosophy are inextricably linked to the attitude of the society at the time. Injannashi used a wide range of figurative techniques, including metaphors, diminutives, vintage words, carousels, allegories, and symbols, which are related to traditional concepts of eastern artistic thought. The winning and the rising events, the power of the hero were expressed through white light, red light when the bad events and the losing events were described by black anger, foggy darkness. The dream is described 22 times in the novel. Most of the dreams are the symbol of troubles that may happen in the future. There are lots of events that are dependent on dreams.

The cult of fire in the past and at the present time remains the most revered in the rituals of the Altaians. The author focuses on the rituals of worship of fire in the calendar, family and household rites of the ethnos, traced in different ritual situations. The Altai people in ancient and very recent times genuinely believed that at the moments of performing one or another vital rite, they, directly or through shamans, communicate with deities, spirits. The cult of fire was also one of the central in the tradition of many Turkic-Mongolian peoples. Therefore, the author considers the fire worship ceremony of the Altaians in comparison with similar rites of the genetically close peoples of the Turkic-Mongolian symbiosis (the Buryats, Kalmyks, Bashkirs, etc.). These peoples use the key magic words (blessings), which form an important part of ritual rites. They regulate the relationship between people within the framework of accepted social statuses and roles, occupying a significant place in the spiritual culture of society.

The article is devoted to the proverbs of the Sart-Kalmyks of Kyrgyzstan. It was in 1929 when A.C. Burdukov for the first time noted about the oral heritage of Sart-Kalmyks. Sart-Kalmyks, or Issyk-Kul, or Karakol Kalmyks (Kalmaks) are a small ethnic group of Oirat origin, practicing Islam. The ancestors of the Sart-Kalmyks came from the Xinjiang. The source base for the article was the personal field materials of the authors collected during the 2009–2021 scientific expeditions.

This article is devoted to the work of Dzanabadzar “ZHANLAV TSOGZOLMA”. This text is very important for understanding the phenomenon of Nagarjuna, his contribution to the development of the history of Buddhism in general and especially Buddhist philosophy, the meaning of the system of Madhyamika (the middle view, free from extremes) that he founded. The author of the article also pays attention to Tsongkhapa’s comments. The research is based on the original texts. The translation from Tibetan of the works of Buddhist thinkers is relevant and important for the reconstruction of authentic teaching and for understanding Buddhist philosophy as a whole.